More recent papers address the question of genetic and environmental influences on phenology, reviewed in Rathcke and Lacey 1985. Jackson 1966 provides an alternative approach to long-term phenological records: measuring variation in local environmental factors and relating this environmental variability to variation in phenology. Leopold and Jones 1947 reports one of the first examples of advancing spring events and provides an impressive record of phenology for a multitude of organisms.
Henry David Thoreau’s journals, not published until 1962, represent a thorough record of community phenology ( Thoreau 1962). Robertson 1895 provides a thorough record of such a repeatable sequence in a plant-pollinator community. Phenological sequences are still generally considered to be repeatable from year to year in temperate habitats (i.e., the seasonal progression from spring to summer to fall communities). Clarke 1893 was perhaps the first paper devoted to patterns of the timing of flowering in plant communities, proposing a general pattern of seasonal flowering according to evolutionary history: flowering progresses from spring through autumn, beginning with more ancestral taxa and culminating with derived taxa (an outdated hypothesis). Carolus Linnaeus proposed in 1751 the idea of a flower clock by planting species that open or close their flowers at particular times of the day. The early ecological study of phenology was largely descriptive. It is perhaps unsurprising that some of the earliest studies of community phenology pertain to plant communities and flowering phenology because of the ease of flower identification and study relative to mobile organisms. The references in this section are overviews and introductions to studies of phenology. Because of the flourish of publishing activity on phenology and climate change, most late-20th- and early 21st-century phenological research entails a climate change perspective. Species whose reproductive periods are longer than the availability of any single resource are dependent on the phenology of multiple species for their success-for example, a bumblebee colony that must have access to multiple species of flowers blooming across the growing season. Migratory predators arriving after the period of availability of prey items or herbivores that have lost temporal synchrony with their host plants are unlikely to succeed. Species with mutualistic relationships, such as pollination, and antagonistic relationships, such as herbivory or predation, have typically coevolved many traits, including phenology. As studies have begun to consider multiple interacting species, it has become clear that a community perspective on phenology is vital to understanding how ecological communities will be impacted by climate change, which can break down the historical synchrony of interacting species. Although many studies have focused on individual species, there are significant advantages to adopting a multispecies, or community, perspective.
In addition, phenological data are typically simple to collect, and citizen scientists are increasingly contributing data via infrastructure established by scientific networks of observers in several countries. This is because environmental cues, such as snowmelt or growing degree days, are commonly used by organisms to time life-history events, such as emergence from hibernation, beginning of the growing season, and flowering or migration dates. Phenology has garnered increasing attention, because it is one of the best ways to assess the impacts of climate change. Phenology comprises the basic biology of ecological communities, because the timing of life stages of various organisms determines the potential for interspecific interactions and the duration of their overlap within the community. Phenology is applied in agriculture an old farmer’s saying is to plant corn when oak leaves are as large as a squirrel’s ear. For example, the common name of some Amelanchier (Rosaceae) species is shadbush, because their flowering was an indicator of the timing of shad spawning runs in local rivers in eastern North America. Humans have been recording phenological events perhaps back to the time of hunter and gatherer societies for the purpose of tracking availability of important resources. The Greek root phainomai means to appear, and the most commonly used metric of phenology is timing of first appearance. Index.Phenology is the study of the timing of seasonal events. Classification and Ordination of Plant Communities. Species Interactions: Commensalism, Mutualism, and Herbivory. Species Interactions: Competition and Amensalism. Population Structure and Plant Demography.
The Species in the Environmental Complex.
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